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<title>Siege of Chandax</title>

Siege of Chandax

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</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Siege of <a href="Heraklion" title="Heraklion">Chandax</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"> Depiction of the siege of Chandax from the history of <a href="John_Skylitzes" title="John Skylitzes">John Skylitzes</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>960 – 6 March 961</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="Heraklion" title="Heraklion">Chandax</a>, <a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status">

<a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td>

<a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> reconquered by Byzantium</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

<a href="Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Emirate of Crete</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

<a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

<a href="Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Shu'ayb" title="Abd al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb">Abd al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb</a> (<a href="Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) <a href="Anemas_(died_971)" title="Anemas (died 971)">an-Nu'man ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> (<a href="Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) Karamuntes</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

<a href="Nikephoros_Phokas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros Phokas">Nikephoros Phokas</a> Nikephoros Pastilas <a href="Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

Garrison of Chandax Relief force: ~40,000 men (Leo the Deacon)</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

Unknown, possibly ~34,000 men</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">

Devastating</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em">

Presumbaly heavy</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

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</style><div id="Arab–Byzantine_wars9532" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Early conflicts

<li><a href="Expedition_of_Usama_bin_Zayd" title="Expedition of Usama bin Zayd">Balqa</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Firaz" title="Battle of Firaz">Firaz</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Dathin" title="Battle of Dathin">Dathin</a></li></ul>

<a href="Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">The Levant</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Marj_Rahit_(634)" title="Battle of Marj Rahit (634)">Marj Rahit</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_al-Qaryatayn" title="Battle of al-Qaryatayn">al-Qaryatayn</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Bosra" title="Battle of Bosra">Bosra</a></li>

<li><a href="Conquest_of_Caesarea_Maritima_(634%E2%80%93641)" title="Conquest of Caesarea Maritima (634–641)">Caesarea Maritima</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Ajnadayn" title="Battle of Ajnadayn">Ajnadayn</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Yaqusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yaqusa">Yaqusa</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Marj_al-Saffar_(634)" title="Battle of Marj al-Saffar (634)">Marj al-Saffar</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Sanita-al-Uqab" title="Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab">Sanita-al-Uqab</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Damascus_(634)" title="Siege of Damascus (634)">Damascus</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Maraj-al-Debaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj">Maraj-al-Debaj</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Emesa" title="Siege of Emesa">Emesa</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Yarmuk" title="Battle of the Yarmuk">Yarmouk</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Laodicea_(636)" title="Siege of Laodicea (636)">Laodicea</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Jerusalem_(636%E2%80%93637)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)">Jerusalem</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Hazir" title="Battle of Hazir">Hazir</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Aleppo_(637)" title="Siege of Aleppo (637)">1st Aleppo</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Iron_Bridge" title="Battle of the Iron Bridge">Iron Bridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Emesa_(638)" title="Siege of Emesa (638)">2nd Emesa</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Germanicia" title="Siege of Germanicia">Germanicia</a></li></ul>

<a href="Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Heliopolis" title="Battle of Heliopolis">Heliopolis</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Babylon_Fortress" title="Siege of Babylon Fortress">Babylon Fortress</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Alexandria_(641)" title="Siege of Alexandria (641)">Alexandria</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Nikiou" title="Battle of Nikiou">Nikiou</a></li>

<li><a href="Zubayr_ibn_al-Awwam#Campaign_in_North_Africa" title="Zubayr ibn al-Awwam">Darishkur</a></li>

<li><a href="Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Bahnasa</a></li></ul>

<a href="Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">North Africa</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Sufetula_(647)" title="Battle of Sufetula (647)">Sufetula</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Vescera" title="Battle of Vescera">Vescera</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Mamma" title="Battle of Mamma">Mamma</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">Carthage</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Tabarka" title="Battle of Tabarka">Tabarka</a></li></ul>

<a href="Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> & <a href="Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>

<ul><li><a href="Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">1st Constantinople</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Sebastopolis" title="Battle of Sebastopolis">Sebastopolis</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Tyana" title="Siege of Tyana">Tyana</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">2nd Constantinople</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Nicaea_(727)" title="Siege of Nicaea (727)">Nicaea</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Akroinon" title="Battle of Akroinon">Akroinon</a></li></ul>

Border conflicts

<ul><li><a href="Siege_of_Kamacha" title="Siege of Kamacha">Kamacha</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(782)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782)">Asia Minor (782)</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Kopidnadon" title="Battle of Kopidnadon">Kopidnadon</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Krasos" title="Battle of Krasos">Krasos</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(806)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)">Asia Minor (806)</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Anzen" title="Battle of Anzen">Anzen</a></li>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Amorium" title="Sack of Amorium">Amorium</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Mauropotamos" title="Battle of Mauropotamos">Mauropotamos</a></li>

<li><a href="Capture_of_Faruriyyah" title="Capture of Faruriyyah">Faruriyyah</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Lalakaon" title="Battle of Lalakaon">Lalakaon</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Bathys_Ryax" title="Battle of Bathys Ryax">Bathys Ryax</a></li></ul>

<a href="Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Siege_of_Syracuse_(827%E2%80%93828)" title="Siege of Syracuse (827–828)">1st Syracuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Messina_(842-843)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Messina (842-843)">Messina</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Butera" title="Battle of Butera">Butera</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Lentini" title="Siege of Lentini">Lentini</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Syracuse_(868)" title="Siege of Syracuse (868)">2nd Syracuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Melite_(870)" title="Siege of Melite (870)">1st Malta</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Syracuse_(877%E2%80%93878)" title="Siege of Syracuse (877–878)">3rd Syracuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Caltavuturo" title="Battle of Caltavuturo">Caltavuturo</a></li>

<li>Campaigns of <a href="Leo_Apostyppes" title="Leo Apostyppes">Leo Apostyppes</a> & <a href="Nikephoros_Phokas_the_Elder" title="Nikephoros Phokas the Elder">Nikephoros Phokas the Elder</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Stelai" title="Battle of Stelai">1st Milazzo</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Milazzo_(888)" title="Battle of Milazzo (888)">2nd Milazzo</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Taormina_(902)" title="Siege of Taormina (902)">1st Taormina</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Garigliano" title="Battle of Garigliano">Garigliano</a></li>

<li>Campaigns of <a href="Marianos_Argyros" title="Marianos Argyros">Marianos Argyros</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Taormina_(962)" title="Siege of Taormina (962)">2nd Taormina</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Rometta" title="Siege of Rometta">Rometta</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Straits" title="Battle of the Straits">Straits of Messina</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Maniakes" title="George Maniakes">George Maniakes in Sicily</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Medina_(1053%E2%80%931054)" title="Siege of Medina (1053–1054)">2nd Malta</a></li></ul>

Naval warfare

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_the_Masts" title="Battle of the Masts">Phoenix</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Keramaia" title="Battle of Keramaia">Keramaia</a></li>

<li><a href="Emirate_of_Crete#Conquest_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">1st Crete</a></li>

<li><a href="Cretan_expedition_(828)" title="Cretan expedition (828)">2nd Crete</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Thasos" title="Battle of Thasos">Thasos</a></li>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Damietta_(853)" title="Sack of Damietta (853)">Damietta</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Ragusa_(866%E2%80%93868)" title="Siege of Ragusa (866–868)">Ragusa</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Kardia" title="Battle of Kardia">Kardia</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Gulf_of_Corinth" title="Battle of the Gulf of Corinth">Gulf of Corinth</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Cephalonia" title="Battle of Cephalonia">Cephalonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Euripos" title="Siege of Euripos">Euripos</a></li>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Thessalonica_(904)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (904)">Thessalonica</a></li>

<li><a href="Cretan_expedition_(911%E2%80%93912)" title="Cretan expedition (911–912)">3rd Crete</a></li>

<li><a href="Cretan_expedition_(949)" title="Cretan expedition (949)">4th Crete</a></li>

Byzantine reconquest

<ul><li>Campaigns of <a href="John_Kourkouas" title="John Kourkouas">John Kourkouas</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>Campaigns of <a href="Sayf_al-Dawla" title="Sayf al-Dawla">Sayf al-Dawla</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Marash_(953)" title="Battle of Marash (953)">Marash</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Raban" title="Battle of Raban">Raban</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Andrassos" title="Battle of Andrassos">Andrassos</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Campaigns of <a href="Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II</a>

<ul>

<li><a href="Sack_of_Aleppo_(962)" title="Sack of Aleppo (962)">Aleppo</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_conquest_of_Cilicia" title="Byzantine conquest of Cilicia">Cilicia</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Antioch_(968%E2%80%93969)" title="Siege of Antioch (968–969)">Antioch</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li>Campaigns of <a href="John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Alexandretta" title="Battle of Alexandretta">Alexandretta</a></li>

<li><a href="Syrian_campaigns_of_John_Tzimiskes" title="Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes">Syria</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Campaigns of <a href="Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_the_Orontes" title="Battle of the Orontes">Orontes</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Aleppo_(994%E2%80%93995)" title="Siege of Aleppo (994–995)">2nd Aleppo</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Apamea" title="Battle of Apamea">Apamea</a></li></ul></li></ul>

The siege of Chandax in 960-961 was the centerpiece of the <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>'s campaign to recover the island of <a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> which since the 820s <a href="Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">had been ruled</a> by Muslim Arabs. The campaign followed a series of failed attempts to reclaim the island from the Muslims stretching as far back as 827, only a few years after the initial conquest of the island by the Arabs, and was led by the general and future emperor <a href="Nikephoros_Phokas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros Phokas">Nikephoros Phokas</a>. It lasted from autumn 960 until spring 961, when the main Muslim fortress and capital of the island, Chandax (modern <a href="Heraklion" title="Heraklion">Heraklion</a>) was captured. The reconquest of Crete was a major achievement for the Byzantines, as it restored Byzantine control over the Aegean littoral and diminished the threat of <a href="Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracen</a> pirates, for which Crete had provided a base of operations.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crete_under_Muslim_rule">Crete under Muslim rule</h2></div>

The island of <a href="Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> had been conquered in the late 820s by a large group of exiles from <a href="Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Muslim Spain</a>. In the years after the initial landing, the <a href="Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> launched repeated expeditions to drive them back and recover the island, but these were defeated. The <a href="Saracens" class="mw-redirect" title="Saracens">Saracens</a> established their stronghold of <a href="Chandax" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandax">Chandax</a> on the northern coast, which became the capital of the new <a href="Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Emirate of Crete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000347–350-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanard19711082–1083-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546-3">[3]</a> The Muslim occupation of Crete had devastating consequences for Byzantium, as it opened up its naval heartland, the <a href="Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>, to raids from the Muslim fleets,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000347,_357ff.-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546-3">[3]</a> both by the Cretan Saracens themselves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristides198176–111-5">[5]</a> as well as those of the <a href="Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, that used Crete as a forward base or a stop-over, as seen during <a href="Leo_of_Tripoli" title="Leo of Tripoli">Leo of Tripoli</a>'s <a href="Sack_of_Thessalonica_(904)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (904)">sack</a> of <a href="Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> in 904, when many of the over 20,000 Thessalonian captives were sold or gifted as slaves in Crete.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanard19711084-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997467-7">[7]</a>

The first major attempt by the Byzantines to reclaim the island was in 842–843, under <a href="Theoktistos" title="Theoktistos">Theoktistos</a>. It made some headway, and apparently allowed for the re-establishment of the recovered parts of the island as a <a href="Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">theme</a>, as evidenced by the presence of a <a href="Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> of Crete in the contemporary <a href="Taktikon_Uspensky" title="Taktikon Uspensky">Taktikon Uspensky</a>. However Theoktistos had to abandon the campaign, and the troops left behind were quickly defeated by the Saracens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000351-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997447-9">[9]</a> In the spring of 866, the regent <a href="Bardas" title="Bardas">Bardas</a> intended to launch a campaign to recover Crete, but was assassinated on the eve of its departure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997453-10">[10]</a> Further Byzantine attempts at reconquest in 911 (177 ships under the admiral <a href="Himerios_(admiral)" title="Himerios (admiral)">Himerios</a>) and 949 (128 ships under <a href="Constantine_Gongyles" title="Constantine Gongyles">Constantine Gongyles</a>) failed disastrously, despite the large resources and forces mustered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000352–356-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997470,_489-12">[12]</a> According to Christos Makrypoulias, despite their often meticulous preparation, the Byzantine expeditions against Crete failed due to supply constraints and the <a href="Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">strategy of attrition</a> followed by the Cretan Saracens. Success or failure in controlling Crete ultimately relied on control of Chandax, which left the Byzantines in the precarious position of having to maintain a siege for longer periods far from their supply bases. Secure behind the ramparts of Chandax, the Saracens could wait until their opponents had become weakened enough to launch a devastating counterattack.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000359–361-13">[13]</a>

Determined to avenge the disaster of 949, towards the end of his reign Emperor <a href="Constantine_VII_Porphyrogennetos" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos">Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 913–919, 945–959) renewed preparations for capturing the island. Following his death in 959, the task fell upon his son and successor, <a href="Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 959–963). With the support and urging of his chief minister, <a href="Joseph_Bringas" title="Joseph Bringas">Joseph Bringas</a>, Romanos pushed on and appointed the <a href="Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a> of the East, <a href="Nikephoros_Phokas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros Phokas">Nikephoros Phokas</a>, a capable soldier and a distinguished veteran of the <a href="Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">wars against the Muslims</a> in eastern <a href="Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, as the commander-in-chief of the expedition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997493–495-15">[15]</a> Phokas mobilized the Byzantine army of Asia Minor,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560-14">[14]</a> and assembled a large force south of <a href="Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201736-16">[16]</a> This expedition was far larger than previous ones, chiefly due to the relative internal stability brought on by recent victories on the eastern frontiers and a longstanding peace with the <a href="First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201734-17">[17]</a> According to Leo the Deacon, the fleet comprised many <a href="Dromon" title="Dromon">dromons</a> equipped with <a href="Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560-14">[14]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_sources">Historical sources</h2></div>

Modern scholars rely primarily on three near-contemporary sources for the events surrounding the Byzantine reconquest of Crete: the history of <a href="Leo_the_Deacon" title="Leo the Deacon">Leo the Deacon</a>, the poem The Capture of Crete of <a href="Theodosios_the_Deacon" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosios the Deacon">Theodosios the Deacon</a>, and the continuation to the chronicle of <a href="Symeon_the_Logothete" class="mw-redirect" title="Symeon the Logothete">Symeon the Logothete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015302–303-18">[18]</a> The otherwise unknown Theodosios the Deacon wrote his poem in 961/962, as a panegyric to the recapture of the island, and presented it to <a href="Nikephoros_Phokas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikephoros Phokas">Nikephoros Phokas</a> shortly before his ascent to the imperial throne in 963.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015302–303-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEODB"Theodosios_the_Deacon"_(A._Kazhdan),_p._2053-19">[19]</a> Leo the Deacon, who was born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 950, completed his history after 992, and is a major Byzantine source on the period 959–975, including many anecdotes and eyewitness accounts. Although soon forgotten among the Byzantines themselves, it served as a source for later historians like <a href="John_Skylitzes" title="John Skylitzes">John Skylitzes</a> and <a href="John_Zonaras" class="mw-redirect" title="John Zonaras">John Zonaras</a>. The first two chapters of Leo's work deal with the reconquest of Crete.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015303-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrumbacher1897267-21">[21]</a> Symeon the Logothetes wrote during Nikephoros Phokas' reign (963–969), and is sometimes identified with <a href="Symeon_the_Metaphrast" title="Symeon the Metaphrast">Symeon the Metaphrast</a>, or with another Symeon who held a succession of offices under Phokas and <a href="John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 969–976). His work reaches until 948, and the continuation, possibly written by Symeon himself, reaches to 963. It does not survive in its original form, but in two variants: one as the sixth and last book of the <a href="Theophanes_Continuatus" title="Theophanes Continuatus">Theophanes Continuatus</a>, that deals with the reign of Constantine VII and Romanos II up to the spring of 961, and a summarized version up to 962 as part of the chronicle of <a href="Pseudo-Symeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Symeon">Pseudo-Symeon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015303–304-22">[22]</a> However, as the historian Anthony Kaldellis points out, a large part of the account of Symeon, which is heavily relied on by modern scholarship, is lifted, often almost verbatim, from the similar account by <a href="Procopius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Procopius of Caesarea">Procopius of Caesarea</a> on the <a href="Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">expedition</a> of <a href="Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> against the <a href="Vandalic_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandalic Kingdom">Vandalic Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015304–308-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Landing_in_Crete_and_first_clashes">Landing in Crete and first clashes</h2></div>

Using ramps, the expeditionary force swiftly disembarked in good order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200561-24">[24]</a> Theophanes Continuatus and Theodosios the Deacon report that the Byzantines faced no resistance at disembarkation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristides1981177-25">[25]</a> but Leo the Deacon reports that the Saracens were awaiting the Byzantine landing arrayed for battle. Nikephoros quickly mustered his troops in the typical Byzantine battle formation in three sections, and charged the Saracen army. The Saracens broke under the Byzantine attack, and turned to flee in the fortifications of Chandax, suffering many casualties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200561–62-26">[26]</a> Leo the Deacon describes the city as being strongly fortified both by nature and by artifice:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200564-27">[27]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">For on one side it had the sea as a sure defense, and on the other side it was set on a nearly flat and level rock, on which the walls were laid, and its construction was something new and unusual. For it was built of earth, and goat and pig hair, mixed together and compressed thoroughly; and it was wide enough so that two wagons could easily make a circuit on top of the ramparts and pass each other, and it was quite high, and in addition two extremely wide and deep moats were dug around it.</blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— Leo the Deacon, History, I.5</div>

From Leo and Theodosios' account it appears that Nikephoros initially hoped to capture Chandax by storm, but when this failed, he settled for a long-term siege,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562_(note_47)-28">[28]</a> constructing a fortified encampment in front of Chandax, and placing his fleet in a secure anchorage nearby with orders to blockade the city and destroy any ships that might try to leave it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562-29">[29]</a> According to Leo, Phokas then instructed Nikephoros Pastilas, the <a href="Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> of the <a href="Thracesian_Theme" title="Thracesian Theme">Thracesian Theme</a> and a distinguished veteran of the wars against the Arabs in the east, to take a "cohort of picked men" and undertake a raid into the Cretan countryside to scout out the situation and gather supplies. Access to the interior would reduce the quantity of provisions that needed to be brought in by sea, which would become a problem later in the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahon202165-30">[30]</a> Perceiving the countryside to be relatively safe, Pastilas and his men roamed carelessly, indulging on food and wine. The Muslims, who were carefully hidden and observed their progress from the heights, saw this as an excellent opportunity, and assembled for battle. Leo maintains that although drunk, the Byzantines put up a good fight, until Pastilas himself, after being wounded by many arrows, fell. Then the Byzantines' discipline collapsed, and they were cut down, with only a few men surviving to report of the disaster to Phokas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562–63-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siege_of_Chandax">Siege of Chandax</h2></div>

After hearing of the news of his slaughtered battalion, Phokas resolved to move quickly and establish a firm siege of the city. He inspected the city wall and found it to be extremely strong. As a result, he ordered his men to begin constructing a <a href="Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallation</a> from coast to coast in front of the landward side of the city wall.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200564–65-32">[32]</a> However, Pastilas' misfortune also demonstrated to Phokas that he would have to secure his rear before focusing on the siege.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20154-33">[33]</a> He selected a small group of younger soldiers, and led them out of the camp at night in secret. The Byzantines took a few prisoners, from whom they learned that a relief force, according to Leo some 40,000 men, were assembling on a nearby hill to attack the Byzantine encampment. Phokas allowed his men to rest during the next day, and only set off again when evening had fallen, guided by locals (probably native Christians). Quickly and quietly, his men surrounded the Arab encampment. Phokas then ordered the trumpets blown and charged the sleeping Arabs. Taken by surprise, the Arabs gave no thought to resisting, but tried to flee, only to run into other Byzantine troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200566–67-34">[34]</a>

The Arab relief army was annihilated, and Phokas instructed his men to cut off the heads of the fallen and take them with them as they returned to their base, again moving only during the night. On the next day, he had his men impale some of the heads in view of the city wall, and hurled others with catapults into the city itself. The sight caused great consternation and lamentation among the inhabitants, who saw their kin and friends dead; but they remained determined to resist, and threw back an attack led by Phokas soon after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200567–68-35">[35]</a> Phokas employed archers and throwing machines against the defenders while attempting to scale the wall using ladders. The fortress held, however, under the pressure of the bombardments, and the ladders were crushed. Phokas soon called off the assault. He now decided to blockade the city for the winter while his engineers began to design and construct more significant <a href="Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20155-36">[36]</a>

It was around this point that the Emir of Crete, <a href="Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Shu'ayb" title="Abd al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb">Abd al-Aziz</a>, appealed to many of his fellow Muslim rulers for aid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201736-16">[16]</a> Their envoys first went to the <a href="Ikhshidid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ikhshidid">Ikhshidid</a> ruler of Egypt, <a href="Unujur_ibn_al-Ikhshid" class="mw-redirect" title="Unujur ibn al-Ikhshid">Unujur ibn al-Ikhshid</a>, but he showed little inclination to come to their aid. As a result, the Cretans turned to the <a href="Fatimid_Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Caliph">Fatimid</a> caliph <a href="Al-Mu'izz_li-Din_Allah" title="Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah">al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah</a>, although he was a heterodox and bitter rival of the Cretans' nominal suzerain, the Abbasid caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991358-37">[37]</a> For al-Mu'izz, this was a golden opportunity to portray himself as the true champion of <a href="Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> in the eyes of the Islamic world. He wrote letters to Romanos demanding that his forces leave Crete, otherwise the truce signed between them in 958 would be ended; and to Unujur suggesting a common effort against the Byzantines by uniting their fleets on 20 May 961 at <a href="Tolmeita" title="Tolmeita">Tolmeita</a> in the <a href="Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>. Even if the Ikhshidid fleet did not come, declared al-Mu'izz, he would sail alone to aid Crete. In the event, nothing came of this as the Byzantines conquered Chandax even before the Fatimid fleet was made ready to sail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991358–359-38">[38]</a>

The second assault on Chandax took place in March 961. This time the Byzantines used much more effective siege machines against Chandax, but they were still unable to gain a foothold in the city. Meanwhile, the Muslims kept just out of range of the Greek archers so that they could still attend the walls but not be annihilated by the bombardment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20155-36">[36]</a> Phokas soon employed the use of a <a href="Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering ram</a> on the walls, but this was a feint. While the Muslims were focusing on the battering ram, miners dug underneath the walls and planted explosive and flammable materials underneath the weak points. Soon, they managed to destroy a huge section of the wall, where the Byzantine army began to pour into the city. The defenders quickly formed a line within the city, but it was too late. On 6 March, the Muslims were routed and fled back into the streets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997493–495-15">[15]</a> The soldiers were allowed the traditional three days of plunder before the army again set off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20156-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div>

With the capture of Chandax, the rest of Crete quickly capitulated to the Byzantine army, and the island was brought back under the suzerainty of Constantinople, and a long-term effort was made by Byzantium to re-Christianize the island.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201737-40">[40]</a> The island was organized as a regular theme, with a strategos based at Chandax. Extensive efforts at conversion of the populace were undertaken, led by <a href="John_Xenos" title="John Xenos">John Xenos</a> and <a href="Nikon_the_Metanoeite" title="Nikon the Metanoeite">Nikon "the Metanoeite"</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997495-41">[41]</a> Lying on the southern entry of the <a href="Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>, the conquest of Crete was especially beneficial to the Byzantines due to its strategic position for the purpose of launching raids onto the coast of <a href="North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20151-42">[42]</a>

On the other hand, the commitment of so many Byzantine forces to Crete and the East left the way open for the Fatimids' own designs on the Byzantine possessions in the west: Fatimid forces proceeded to <a href="Siege_of_Taormina_(962)" title="Siege of Taormina (962)">capture</a> <a href="Taormina" title="Taormina">Taormina</a>, the chief Byzantine fortress on <a href="Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, followed by a <a href="Siege_of_Rometta" title="Siege of Rometta">long siege</a> of <a href="Rometta" title="Rometta">Rometta</a>, the last Byzantine stronghold in the <a href="Val_Demone" title="Val Demone">Val Demone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991359-43">[43]</a> Nikephoros Phokas, who became emperor in 963, sent a huge relief expedition to the island in 964, including many veterans of the conquest of Crete. However, the Byzantines were defeated before Rometta and their fleet <a href="Battle_of_the_Straits" title="Battle of the Straits">destroyed</a>, signalling the completion of the <a href="Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Muslim conquest of Sicily</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201745-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991359–360-45">[45]</a>

In a much-distorted form, the events of the Siege of Chandax, and especially the figure of Nikephoros Phokas, who allegedly sent his son to govern the island, figure prominently in later traditions about the Byzantine period that circulated in Crete among the local Greek inhabitants during the period of <a href="Kingdom_of_Candia" title="Kingdom of Candia">Venetian rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaltezou1998239–242-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000347–350-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000347–350_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMakrypoulias2000">Makrypoulias 2000</a>, pp. 347–350.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanard19711082–1083-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanard19711082–1083_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCanard1971">Canard 1971</a>, pp. 1082–1083.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEODB"Crete"_(T._E._Gregory,_A._Kazhdan),_pp._545–546_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFODB">ODB</a>, "Crete" (T. E. Gregory, A. Kazhdan), pp. 545–546.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000347,_357ff.-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000347,_357ff._4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMakrypoulias2000">Makrypoulias 2000</a>, pp. 347, 357ff..

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristides198176–111-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristides198176–111_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristides1981">Christides 1981</a>, pp. 76–111.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanard19711084-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanard19711084_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCanard1971">Canard 1971</a>, p. 1084.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997467-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997467_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 467.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000351-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000351_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMakrypoulias2000">Makrypoulias 2000</a>, p. 351.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997447-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997447_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 447.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997453-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997453_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 453.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000352–356-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000352–356_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMakrypoulias2000">Makrypoulias 2000</a>, pp. 352–356.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997470,_489-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997470,_489_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 470, 489.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000359–361-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakrypoulias2000359–361_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMakrypoulias2000">Makrypoulias 2000</a>, pp. 359–361.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200560_14-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, p. 60.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997493–495-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997493–495_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997493–495_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 493–495.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201736-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201736_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201736_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2017">Kaldellis 2017</a>, p. 36.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201734-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201734_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2017">Kaldellis 2017</a>, p. 34.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015302–303-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015302–303_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015302–303_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2015">Kaldellis 2015</a>, pp. 302–303.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEODB"Theodosios_the_Deacon"_(A._Kazhdan),_p._2053-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEODB"Theodosios_the_Deacon"_(A._Kazhdan),_p._2053_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFODB">ODB</a>, "Theodosios the Deacon" (A. Kazhdan), p. 2053.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015303-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015303_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2015">Kaldellis 2015</a>, p. 303.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrumbacher1897267-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrumbacher1897267_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrumbacher1897">Krumbacher 1897</a>, p. 267.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015303–304-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015303–304_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2015">Kaldellis 2015</a>, pp. 303–304.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015304–308-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2015304–308_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2015">Kaldellis 2015</a>, pp. 304–308.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200561-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200561_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, p. 61.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristides1981177-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristides1981177_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChristides1981">Christides 1981</a>, p. 177.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200561–62-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200561–62_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, pp. 61–62.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200564-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200564_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, p. 64.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562_(note_47)-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562_(note_47)_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, p. 62 (note 47).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, p. 62.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahon202165-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMahon202165_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcMahon2021">McMahon 2021</a>, p. 65.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562–63-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200562–63_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, pp. 62–63.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200564–65-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200564–65_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, pp. 64–65.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20154-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomane20154_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomane2015">Romane 2015</a>, p. 4.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200566–67-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200566–67_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, pp. 66–67.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200567–68-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbotSullivan200567–68_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005">Talbot & Sullivan 2005</a>, pp. 67–68.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20155-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomane20155_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomane20155_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomane2015">Romane 2015</a>, p. 5.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991358-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalm1991358_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalm1991">Halm 1991</a>, p. 358.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991358–359-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalm1991358–359_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalm1991">Halm 1991</a>, pp. 358–359.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20156-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomane20156_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomane2015">Romane 2015</a>, p. 6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201737-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201737_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2017">Kaldellis 2017</a>, p. 37.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997495-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997495_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 495.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomane20151-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomane20151_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRomane2015">Romane 2015</a>, p. 1.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991359-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalm1991359_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalm1991">Halm 1991</a>, p. 359.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201745-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis201745_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2017">Kaldellis 2017</a>, p. 45.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalm1991359–360-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalm1991359–360_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHalm1991">Halm 1991</a>, pp. 359–360.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaltezou1998239–242-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaltezou1998239–242_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaltezou1998">Maltezou 1998</a>, pp. 239–242.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFCanard1971" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Marius_Canard" title="Marius Canard">Canard, M.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ikritish-COM_0358">"Iḳrīṭis̲h̲"</a>. In <a href="Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage" title="Victor Louis Ménage">Ménage, V. L.</a>; <a href="Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a href="The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1082–1086. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525">495469525</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChristides1981" class="citation journal cs1">Christides, Vassilios (1981). "The Raids of the Moslems of Crete in the Aegean Sea: Piracy and Conquest". Byzantion. 51: 76–111.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChristides1984" class="citation book cs1">Christides, Vassilios (1984). The Conquest of Crete by the Arabs (ca. 824): A Turning Point in the Struggle between Byzantium and Islam. <a href="Academy_of_Athens_(modern)" title="Academy of Athens (modern)">Academy of Athens</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/14344967">14344967</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDetorakis1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Detorakis, Theocharis E. (1986). Ιστορία της Κρήτης (in Greek). Athens.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHalm1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Heinz_Halm" title="Heinz Halm">Halm, Heinz</a> (1991). Das Reich des Mahdi: Der Aufstieg der Fatimiden [The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-406-35497-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2015" class="citation journal cs1">Kaldellis, Anthony (2015). "The Byzantine conquest of Crete (961 AD), Prokopios' Vandal War, and the Continuator of the Chronicle of Symeon". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 39 (2): 302–311. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0307013100015408">10.1017/S0307013100015408</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2017" class="citation book cs1">Kaldellis, Anthony (2017). Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0190253226</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFODB" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Alexander_Kazhdan" title="Alexander Kazhdan">Kazhdan, Alexander</a>, ed. (1991). <a href="Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantium" title="Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium">The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</a>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-504652-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKrumbacher1897" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Karl_Krumbacher" title="Karl Krumbacher">Krumbacher, Karl</a> (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geschichtederby00ehrhgoog">Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur von Justinian bis zum Ende des oströmischen Reiches (527-1453)</a> (in German) (Second ed.). Munich: C.H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMakrypoulias2000" class="citation journal cs1">Makrypoulias, Christos G. (2000). "Byzantine Expeditions against the Emirate of Crete c. 825–949". Graeco-Arabica (7–8): 347–362.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMaltezou1998" class="citation book cs1">Maltezou, Chryssa (1998). "Byzantine Legends in Venetian Crete". In Ševcenko, Ihor; Hutter, Irmgard (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hkgbAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA233">᾿Αετός. Studies in honour of Cyril Mango presented to him on April 14, 1998</a>. Stuttgart and Leipzig: B. G. Teubner. pp. 233–242. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110958614.233">10.1515/9783110958614.233</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2021" class="citation journal cs1">McMahon, Lucas (2021). "Logistical modelling of a sea-borne expedition in the Mediterranean: the case of the Byzantine invasion of Crete in AD 960". Mediterranean Historical Review. 36 (1): 63–94. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09518967.2021.1900171">10.1080/09518967.2021.1900171</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235676141">235676141</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRomane2015" class="citation book cs1">Romane, Julian (2015). Byzantium Triumphant. Pen and Sword Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1473845701</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchlumberger1890" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Gustave_Schlumberger" title="Gustave Schlumberger">Schlumberger, Gustave</a> (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unempereurbyzant00schluoft">Un empereur byzantin au dixième siècle, Nicéphore Phocas</a> (in French). Paris: Librairie de Firmin-Didot et Cie.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTalbotSullivan2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Alice-Mary_Talbot" title="Alice-Mary Talbot">Talbot, Alice-Mary</a>; Sullivan, Dennis F., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RCDsV41k8A0C">The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century</a>. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-88402-324-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTakirtakoglou2015" class="citation journal cs1">Takirtakoglou, Konstantinos A. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12681%2Fbyzsym.1121">"Οι πόλεμοι μεταξύ του Νικηφόρου Φωκά και των Αράβων"</a>. Byzantina Symmeikta. 25: 57–114. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12681%2Fbyzsym.1121">10.12681/byzsym.1121</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTougher1997" class="citation book cs1">Tougher, Shaun (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iPquae5A4zIC">The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People</a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-04-10811-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Treadgold, Warren</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC">A History of the Byzantine State and Society</a>. Stanford, California: <a href="Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8047-2630-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWortley2010" class="citation book cs1">Wortley, John, ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/skylitzes-2010">John Skylitzes: A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-76705-7</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Byzantine_Greece226" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#66023C;color:gold;"><div id="Byzantine_Greece226" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine Greece</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;">Provinces and regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Achaea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (Roman province)">Achaea Province</a></li>

<li><a href="Aegean_Sea_(theme)" title="Aegean Sea (theme)">Theme of the Aegean</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Crete</a></li>

<li><a href="Hellas_(theme)" title="Hellas (theme)">Theme of Hellas</a></li>

<li><a href="Samos_(theme)" title="Samos (theme)">Theme of Samos</a></li>

<li><a href="Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia Province</a></li>

<li><a href="Macedonia_(theme)" title="Macedonia (theme)">Theme of Macedonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Strymon_(theme)" title="Strymon (theme)">Theme of Strymon</a></li>

<li><a href="Thessalonica_(theme)" title="Thessalonica (theme)">Theme of Thessalonica</a></li>

<li><a href="Peloponnese_(theme)" title="Peloponnese (theme)">Theme of the Peloponnese</a></li>

<li><a href="Cephallenia_(theme)" title="Cephallenia (theme)">Theme of Cephallenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicopolis_(theme)" title="Nicopolis (theme)">Theme of Nicopolis</a></li>

<li><a href="Sclaviniae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclaviniae">Sclaviniae</a>

<ul><li><a href="Melingoi" title="Melingoi">Melingoi</a> and <a href="Ezeritai" title="Ezeritai">Ezeritai</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tsakonia" title="Tsakonia">Tsakonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Vlachia" title="Great Vlachia">Great Vlachia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></li>

<li><a href="Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></li>

<li><a href="Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a></li>

<li><a href="Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene of Athens</a></li>

<li><a href="Danielis" title="Danielis">Danielis</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a></li>

<li><a href="Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a></li>

<li><a href="Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_Melissenos" title="Nikephoros Melissenos">Nikephoros Melissenos</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Choniates" title="Michael Choniates">Michael Choniates</a></li>

<li><a href="Leo_Sgouros" title="Leo Sgouros">Leo Sgouros</a></li>

<li><a href="Leo_Gabalas" title="Leo Gabalas">Leo Gabalas</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_I_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Michael I Komnenos Doukas">Michael I Komnenos Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodore_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Theodore Komnenos Doukas">Theodore Komnenos Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Demetrios_Chomatenos" title="Demetrios Chomatenos">Demetrios Chomatenos</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Apokaukos" title="John Apokaukos">John Apokaukos</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_II_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Michael II Komnenos Doukas">Michael II Komnenos Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="John_I_Doukas_of_Thessaly" title="John I Doukas of Thessaly">John I Doukas of Thessaly</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_I_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas">Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_I_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Thomas I Komnenos Doukas">Thomas I Komnenos Doukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregory_Palamas" title="Gregory Palamas">Gregory Palamas</a></li>

<li><a href="Demetrios_Kydones" title="Demetrios Kydones">Demetrios Kydones</a></li>

<li><a href="Catalan_Company" title="Catalan Company">Catalan Company</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Orsini" title="Nicholas Orsini">Nicholas Orsini</a></li>

<li><a href="Andronikos_Asen" title="Andronikos Asen">Andronikos Asen</a></li>

<li><a href="John_II_Orsini" title="John II Orsini">John II Orsini</a></li>

<li><a href="Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Monomachos" title="Michael Monomachos">Michael Monomachos</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Angelos_(sebastokrator)" title="John Angelos (sebastokrator)">John Angelos</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Gabrielopoulos" title="Stephen Gabrielopoulos">Stephen Gabrielopoulos</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikephoros_II_Orsini" title="Nikephoros II Orsini">Nikephoros II Orsini</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuel_Kantakouzenos" title="Manuel Kantakouzenos">Manuel Kantakouzenos</a></li>

<li><a href="Simeon_Uro%C5%A1" title="Simeon Uroš">Simeon Uroš</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Preljubovi%C4%87" title="Thomas Preljubović">Thomas Preljubović</a></li>

<li><a href="Esau_de'_Buondelmonti" title="Esau de' Buondelmonti">Esau de' Buondelmonti</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexios_Angelos_Philanthropenos" title="Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos">Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodore_II_Palaiologos" title="Theodore II Palaiologos">Theodore II Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Gemistos Plethon</a></li>

<li><a href="Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Demetrios_Palaiologos" title="Demetrios Palaiologos">Demetrios Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Palaiologos" title="Thomas Palaiologos">Thomas Palaiologos</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_scholars_in_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine scholars in Renaissance">Byzantine scholars in Renaissance</a></li>

<li>Historians: <a href="Niketas_Choniates" title="Niketas Choniates">Niketas Choniates</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Akropolites" title="George Akropolites">George Akropolites</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicephorus_Gregoras" title="Nicephorus Gregoras">Nicephorus Gregoras</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Scylitzes" class="mw-redirect" title="John Scylitzes">John Scylitzes</a></li>

<li><a href="Eustathius_of_Thessalonica" title="Eustathius of Thessalonica">Eustathius of Thessalonica</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Glykas" title="Michael Glykas">Michael Glykas</a></li>

<li><a href="Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">Anna Komnene</a></li>

<li><a href="Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Joannes Zonaras</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Kodinos" title="George Kodinos">George Kodinos</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Sphrantzes" title="George Sphrantzes">George Sphrantzes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;">Major centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a></li>

<li><a href="Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li>

<li><a href="Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li>

<li><a href="Patras" title="Patras">Patras</a></li>

<li><a href="Thebes%2C_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li>

<li><a href="Ioannina" title="Ioannina">Ioannina</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;">Greek states after 1204</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Despotate of Epirus</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Empire of Thessalonica</a></li>

<li><a href="Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Despotate of the Morea</a></li>

<li><a href="Medieval_Thessaly" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Thessaly">Thessaly</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;"><a href="History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Christian_persecution_of_paganism_under_Theodosius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I">Persecution of paganism</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbarian_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions">Barbarian invasions</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Under the Heraclian dynasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Thessalonica_(676%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Thessalonica (676–678)">Siege of Thessalonica (676–678)</a></li>

<li><a href="Siege_of_Patras_(805_or_807)" title="Siege of Patras (805 or 807)">Siege of Patras (805 or 807)</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Muslim conquest of Crete</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">Macedonian Renaissance</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_conquest_of_Bulgaria" title="Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria">Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria</a></li>

<li><a href="East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">East-West Schism</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine%E2%80%93Norman_wars" title="Byzantine–Norman wars">Byzantine–Norman wars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sack_of_Thessalonica_(1185)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (1185)">Sack of Thessalonica (1185)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_the_Olive_Grove_of_Kountouras" title="Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras">Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Klokotnitsa" title="Battle of Klokotnitsa">Battle of Klokotnitsa</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Pelagonia" title="Battle of Pelagonia">Battle of Pelagonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Under the Palaiologos dynasty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reconquest_of_Constantinople" title="Reconquest of Constantinople">Reconquest of Constantinople</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Prinitza" title="Battle of Prinitza">Battle of Prinitza</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Makryplagi" title="Battle of Makryplagi">Battle of Makryplagi</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Neopatras" title="Battle of Neopatras">Battle of Neopatras</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Pharsalus_(1277)" title="Battle of Pharsalus (1277)">Battle of Pharsalus (1277)</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Demetrias" title="Battle of Demetrias">Battle of Demetrias</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_civil_war_of_1321%E2%80%931328" title="Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328">Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328</a></li>

<li><a href="Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a> (<a href="Palamism" title="Palamism">Palamism</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Byzantine%E2%80%93Genoese_War_(1348%E2%80%931349)" title="Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–1349)">Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–1349)</a></li>

<li><a href="Zealots_of_Thessalonica" title="Zealots of Thessalonica">Zealots of Thessalonica</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_civil_war_of_1341%E2%80%931347" title="Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347">Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Ottoman Wars">Byzantine–Ottoman Wars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%931430)" title="Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)">Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Echinades_(1427)" title="Battle of the Echinades (1427)">Battle of the Echinades (1427)</a></li>

<li><a href="Morea_revolt_of_1453%E2%80%931454" title="Morea revolt of 1453–1454">Morea revolt of 1453–1454</a></li>

<li><a href="Ottoman_conquest_of_the_Morea" title="Ottoman conquest of the Morea">Ottoman conquest of the Morea</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> (<a href="Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian art</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine literature</a>

<ul><li><a href="Alexander_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander romance">Alexander romance</a></li>

<li><a href="Miracles_of_Saint_Demetrius" title="Miracles of Saint Demetrius">Miracles of Saint Demetrius</a></li>

<li><a href="Greek_Anthology" title="Greek Anthology">Greek Anthology</a></li>

<li><a href="Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Byzantine dress</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Byzantine cuisine</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Orthodox_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Christianity">Eastern Orthodox Christianity</a></li>

<li><a href="Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a>

<ul><li><a href="Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #FFDEAD;color:black;">Monuments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acrocorinth" title="Acrocorinth">Acrocorinth</a></li>

<li><a href="Angelokastro_(Corfu)" title="Angelokastro (Corfu)">Angelokastro (Corfu)</a></li>

<li>Athens

<ul><li><a href="Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles%2C_Athens" title="Church of the Holy Apostles, Athens">Church of the Holy Apostles</a></li>

<li><a href="Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a></li>

<li><a href="Little_Metropolis" title="Little Metropolis">Little Metropolis</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity%2C_Athens" title="Church of the Holy Trinity, Athens">Soteira Lykodemou</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Castle_of_Chios" title="Castle of Chios">Castle of Chios</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_of_the_Parigoritissa" title="Church of the Parigoritissa">Church of the Parigoritissa</a></li>

<li><a href="Didymoteicho_Fortress" title="Didymoteicho Fortress">Didymoteicho Fortress</a></li>

<li><a href="Feraklos_Castle" title="Feraklos Castle">Feraklos Castle</a></li>

<li><a href="Gardiki_Castle%2C_Corfu" title="Gardiki Castle, Corfu">Gardiki Castle</a></li>

<li><a href="Hexamilion_wall" title="Hexamilion wall">Hexamilion wall</a></li>

<li><a href="Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a></li>

<li><a href="Kassiopi_Castle" title="Kassiopi Castle">Kassiopi Castle</a></li>

<li><a href="Meteora" title="Meteora">Meteora</a></li>

<li><a href="Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li>

<li><a href="Monastery_of_Saint_John_the_Theologian" title="Monastery of Saint John the Theologian">Monastery of Saint John the Theologian</a></li>

<li><a href="Monemvasia" title="Monemvasia">Monemvasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li>

<li><a href="Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Metropolis%2C_Veria" title="Old Metropolis, Veria">Old Metropolis of Veria</a></li>

<li><a href="Panagia_Episkopi" title="Panagia Episkopi">Panagia Episkopi</a></li>

<li><a href="Panagia_Kontariotissa" title="Panagia Kontariotissa">Panagia Kontariotissa</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleochristian_and_Byzantine_monuments_of_Thessaloniki" title="Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki">Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki</a></li>

<li><a href="Panagia_Ekatontapiliani" title="Panagia Ekatontapiliani">Panagia Ekatontapiliani</a></li>

<li><a href="Patras_Castle" title="Patras Castle">Patras Castle</a></li>

<li><a href="Porta_Panagia" title="Porta Panagia">Porta Panagia</a></li>

<li><a href="Saints_Theodore_Tyro_and_Theodore_Stratelates_Church%2C_Serres" title="Saints Theodore Tyro and Theodore Stratelates Church, Serres">Saints Theodoroi, Serres</a></li>

<li><a href="Trikala_Castle" title="Trikala Castle">Trikala Castle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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